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3.2.1 Wind Speed and Wind Direction

3.2.1.1 Probe placement

The standard exposure height of wind instruments over level, open terrain is 10 m above the ground [9]. Open terrain is defined as an area where the distance between the instrument and any obstruction is at least ten times the height of that obstruction [2, 4, 9]. The slope of the terrain in the vicinity of the site should be taken into account when determining the relative height of the obstruction [2]. An obstruction may be man-made (such as a building or stack) or natural (such as a hill or a tree). The sensor height, its height above obstructions, and the height/character of nearby obstructions should be documented. Where such an exposure cannot be obtained, the anemometer should be installed at such a height that it is reasonably unaffected by local obstructions and represents the approximate wind values that would occur at 10 m in the absence of the obstructions. This height, which depends on the extent, height, and distance of obstructions and on site availability, should be determined on a case-by-case basis. Additional guidance on the evaluation of vertical profiles (Section 6.1.3) and surface roughness (Section 6.4.2) may be helpful in determining the appropriate height.

If the source emission point is substantially above 10 m, then additional wind measurements should be made at stack top or 100 m, whichever is lower [1]. In cases with stack heights of 200 m or above, the appropriate measurement height should be determined by the Regional Office on a case-by-case basis. Because maximum practical tower heights are on the order of 100 m, wind data at heights greater than 100 m will most likely be determined by some other means. Elevated wind measurements can be obtained via remote sensing (see Section 9.0). Indirect values can be estimated by using a logarithmic wind-speed profile relationship. For this purpose, instruments should be located at multiple heights (at least three) so that site-specific wind profiles can be developed.

3.2.1.2 Obstructions

Buildings. Aerodynamic effects due to buildings and other major structures, such as cooling towers, should be avoided to the extent possible in the siting of wind sensors; such effects are significant, not only in the vicinity of the structures themselves, but at considerable distances downwind. Procedures for assessing aerodynamic effects have been developed from observing such effects in wind tunnels [13], [14]. Wind sensors should only be located on building rooftops as a last resort; in such cases, the sensors should be located at a sufficient height above the rooftop to avoid the aerodynamic wake. This height can be determined from on-site measurements (e.g., smoke releases) or wind tunnel studies. As a rule of thumb, he total depth of the building wake is estimated to be approximately 2.5 times the height of the building [1]  

Trees. In addition to the general rules concerning obstructions noted above, additional considerations may be important for vegetative features (e.g., growth rates). Seasonal effects should also be considered for sites near deciduous trees. For dense, continuous forests where an open exposure cannot be obtained, measurements should be taken at 10m above the height of the general vegetative canopy.

Towers. Sensors mounted on towers are frequently used to collect wind speed measurements at more than one height. To avoid the influence of the structure itself, closed towers, stacks, cooling towers, and similar solid structures should not be used to support wind instruments. Open-lattice towers are preferred. Towers should be located at or close to plant elevation in an open area representative of the area of interest.

Wind instruments should be mounted on booms at a distance of at least twice the diameter/diagonal of the tower (from the nearest point on the tower) into the prevailing wind direction or wind direction of interest [2]. Where the wind distribution is strongly bimodal from opposite directions, such as in the case of up-valley and down-valley flows, then the booms should be at right angles to the predominant wind directions. The booms must be strong enough so that they will not sway or vibrate sufficiently to influence standard deviation values in strong winds. Folding or collapsible towers are not recommended since they may not provide sufficient support to prevent such vibrations, and also may not be rigid enough to ensure proper instrument orientation. The wind sensors should be located at heights of minimum tower density (i.e., minimum number of diagonal cross-members) and above/below horizontal cross-members [2]. Since practical considerations may limit the maximum boom length, wind sensors on large towers (e.g., TV towers and fire look-out towers) may only provide accurate measurements over a certain arc. In such cases, two systems on opposite sides of the tower may be needed to provide accurate measurements over the entire 360°. If such a dual system is used, the method of switching from one system to the other should be carefully specified. A wind instrument mounted on top of a tower should be mounted at least one tower diameter/diagonal above the top of the tower structure.

Surface roughness.

The surface roughness over a given area reflects man-made and natural obstructions, and general surface features. These roughness elements effect the horizontal and vertical wind patterns. Differences in the surface roughness over the area of interest can create differences in the wind pattern that may necessitate additional measurement sites. A method of estimating surface roughness length, zo , is presented in Section 6.4.2. If an area has a surface roughness length greater than 0.5 m, then there may be a need for special siting considerations (see discussion in Sections 3.3 and 3.5).

3.2.1.3 Siting considerations

A single well-located measurement site can be used to provide representative wind measurements for non-coastal, flat terrain, rural situations. Wind instruments should be placed taking into account the purpose of the measurements. The instruments should be located over level, open terrain at a height of 10 m above the ground, and at a distance of at least ten times the height of any nearby obstruction. For elevated releases, additional measurements should be made at stack top or 100 m, whichever is lower [1]. In cases with stack heights of 200 m or above, the appropriate measurement height should be determined by the Regional Office on a case-by-case basis.

3. SITING AND EXPOSURE 
 3.1 Representativeness 
     3.1.1 Objectives for Siting 
     3.1.2 Factors to Consider  
 3.2 Simple Terrain Locations 
     3.2.1 Speed and Wind Direction  
     3.2.2 Temperature, Temperature Difference, and Humidity
     3.2.3 Precipitation  
     3.2.4 Pressure 
      3.2.5 Radiation 
 3.3 Complex Terrain Locations  
     3.3.1 Wind Speed  
     3.3.2 Wind Direction 
     3.3.3 Temperature Difference 
  3.4 Coastal Locations
 3.5 Urban Locations 
 3.6 Recommendations


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